Academic Goal
Setting: Implications
Research has consistently suggested that the two
types of academic goal orientations produce significantly different
adaptive or nonadaptive learning-related behaviors (Maehr,
1999). According to Covington (2000), “one’s
achievement goals are thought to influence the quality, timing, and
appropriateness of cognitive strategies that, in turn, control the
quality of one’s accomplishments” (p.
174). In general, the research suggests (Anderman et
al., 2002; Covington, 2000; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Kaplan
& Maehr, 1999; Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002b; Maehr, 1999;
Newman, 2000; Pintrich, 2000b, 2000c; Skaalvik & Skaalvik,
2002; Snow et al., 1996):
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A
performance goal orientation is associated with nonadaptive
learning behaviors which include hiding self-perceived
incompetence, self-handicapping, greater worry and anxiety,
increased behavior problems, a concern for establishing superiority
relative to others, a focus on obtaining grades for grades' sake or
other external reasons, less adaptive subsequent motivation,
negative self-evaluations and affect, poorer and disorganized
strategy use, and poorer academic performance. A performance
goal orientation has been associated with students demonstrating a
pattern of “helplessness” and the avoidance of
challenging situations in order to maintain positive
self-perceptions of ability (when compared to
others). “Success…is evaluated in social
comparison terms. In terms of developing self-esteem, this is a
decidedly hazardous situation. By definition, success is a limited
commodity. Only a few, at best, can win a competitive game”
(Maehr, 1999, p. 331).
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A
learning goal orientation is associated with more adaptive learning
behaviors: positive affect (e.g., pride and satisfaction), higher
levels of efficacy, interest, task effort and engagement, the use
of more creative and deep self-regulatory learning strategies, and
better academic performance. When learning results in stress
and frustration, learning goal oriented students tend to view the
situation as a challenge, are often energized by the challenge,
maintain a positive and optimistic outlook, persevere, and
demonstrate the ability to be strategically flexible in their
problem solving strategies.
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The
adoption of a particular learning goal orientation is predictive
of, and related to, the attainment of important and valued
educational outcomes for children and adolescents. According
to Covington’s (2000) review, “the accumulated evidence
overwhelmingly favors the goal-theory hypothesis that different
reasons for achieving, nominally approach and avoidance, influence
the quality of achievement striving via self-regulation
mechanisms” (p. 178). A learning goal orientation is a
key student attribute that should be assessed and fostered in
learning environments. A learning goal orientation is
associated with environments that define success as progress and
improvement, value effort and learning, and accept mistakes as an
inherent component of learning. Learning goal oriented
environments stress personal goals, internal comparisons, and a
focus on past performance as a frame of reference. In
contrast, educational practices that encourage normative ability
social comparisons (comparisons that highlight and accentuate
competency differences) are believed to foster performance goal
orientations and associated maladaptive learner behaviors.
Classroom and school incentive systems, which specify how students
are evaluated and how rewards (e.g., grades, praise) are
distributed, can have a significant impact on a student’s
adoption of a specific academic goal
orientation.
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The
reader is referred to Covington (2002) for a summary of the
research on the two major categories of classroom incentive
structures (ability vs. equity game structures).
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Recently,
some goal achievement research has differentiated between two
subtypes of performance goal orientation. Performance-
approach goals are hypothesized to be present when a
student’s purpose for learning is focused on demonstrating
their competence and abilities. Performance-approach
orientations have been associated with both adaptive and
maladaptive learning outcomes. It is hypothesized that for
some students, a focus on doing better than others and publicly
demonstrating their competence (performance- approach) can
contribute to higher levels of motivation, task engagement, and
academic success, particularly when the student also displays
intrinsic interest in the task. However, there is
disagreement in the field regarding the positive and negative
consequences of a performance-avoidance goal orientation (Eccles
& Wigfield, 2002). A performance- avoidance goal
orientation is present when a student’s purpose or goal for
achievement is to avoid the demonstration of incompetence (i.e.,
avoid looking stupid). Performance- avoidance goals have been
linked with maladaptive educational and behavioral
outcomes.
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Developmental research has revealed significant
differences and changes in a student’s goal orientation over
time, largely in response to students adapting to new
environments. In general, the developmental goal orientation
research literature suggests that changes occur more as a function
of changing learning environment, and not enduring personality
traits (Anderman et al., 2000).
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